In the chaotic weeks after October 7, social media feeds filled with grim images of violence – and, for many users, a torrent of anti-Israel and antisemitic abuse.
Since the October 7 attack, many Israelis – and Jews everywhere – have been exposed not only to the trauma of war but also to a surge of online hate.
A study from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI) has found that frequent exposure to such digital vitriol is linked to higher levels of post-traumatic stress disorder, especially among those who struggle to regulate their emotions. This shows how today’s conflicts can wound both on the battlefield and on the screen.
In the chaotic weeks after October 7, social media feeds filled with grim images of violence – and, for many users, a torrent of anti-Israel and antisemitic abuse. Now, the wide-ranging study suggests that exposure to that online hate is likely to leave psychological scars among those who are targeted.
While social media use has been linked with PTSD, little is known about the specific association of online hate speech on social media networks and post-trauma and whether such a link is stronger among those who find it difficult to regulate their emotions and may have a harder time coping with hate speech, the team wrote.
The research – led by Dr. Dvora Shmulewitz – head of epidemiological research at HUJI’s Israel Center for Addiction and Mental Health, working under the supervision of Prof. Mario Mikulincer – found that frequent encounters with hate speech on platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and X (formerly Twitter) were strongly linked to higher rates of PTSD symptoms, even after accounting for direct exposure to the attacks, ongoing war, and prior mental health problems. It was published in the prestigious journal Scientific Reports, published by Nature Portfolio, under the title “Exposure to online hate speech is positively associated with post-traumatic stress disorder symptom severity.”
Fifty-seven percent of Israelis use Facebook, according to the latest report; 48% use Instagram (the majority were women), and 7.5% use X, which accounted for 48.7% of its entire population. About 73% of Israelis used social media in 2024-2025, with over 6.8 million active users reported for this year. But this statistic includes YouTube and WhatsApp, which have considerably less hate than the others. Facebook usage has declined, but Telegram and TikTok, which are more popular among young people, have seen significant growth.
“This isn’t just about offensive language,” said Shmulewitz, who herself is religiously observant and does not use social media.
“Online hate can act as a form of digital terror – exacerbating the effects of trauma or even functioning as a traumatic event itself.” It could be even more harmful for teenagers who are not sufficiently strong emotionally to cope with hate speech.
Four items asked about exposure to the October 7 attacks – being in an attacked area in the South; exposure during duty in the security forces or emergency services; being somewhere with widespread missile attacks; and severe injury or death due to the events.
The study surveyed 3,998 Jewish Israeli adults aged 18 to 70, two months after the attacks, using standardized clinical tools to measure PTSD symptoms. About a quarter of respondents met the screening threshold for probable PTSD, and 39% reported encountering hate speech online at least once a week since the war began.
“We haven’t yet studied PTSD in Israeli Arabs, but they surely suffer from it too,” Shmulewitz added. “We have to ask them questions in a culturally sensitive way, as if not, the data could be unreliable.”
Three response options assessed whether exposure happened to the respondent, a close family member, or someone the respondent knew; it was possible to choose more than one response. Two items assessed direct war exposure since October 7, based on frequency of alarms, due to rocket or missile attacks, terrorist infiltration, or hostile aircraft infiltration; and hearing explosions. Two items assessed indirect war exposure, based on the frequency of reading and viewing uncensored materials about the attacks or the ongoing war. Uncensored materials would most likely have been accessed via online platforms, as most offline sources would be subject to censorship, the team wrote.
Even after controlling for war-zone exposure, problematic technology use, and pre-existing psychiatric conditions, each standard deviation increase in reported hate speech exposure was associated with a 2.2-point rise in PTSD scores – a statistically significant jump.
The effects were even more pronounced among those who reported difficulty managing their emotions. “For people with high emotional dysregulation, the link between hate speech and PTSD was considerably stronger,” Mikulincer said, suggesting that certain people are particularly vulnerable to psychological harm from online hostility.
Social media can cause PTSD among those addicted to it or who are exposed to graphic depictions of traumatic events. But another aspect is online hate speech, which is defined as hostile communication against an individual or group based on a group characteristic, such as nationality, ethnicity, or religion. Online forums can rapidly amplify hate speech by widening the range of exposure and removing inhibitions, as well as providing new forms such as persistent, deliberate harassment and degrading memes.
Hamas’s use of digital terror
Hamas itself used digital terror, using online technology to quickly spread graphic images and videos to millions of people, causing widespread horror and fear, they wrote. This exposure, which was mainly via social media, could also increase exposure to online hate speech.
The findings raise questions about the role of tech companies, policymakers, and mental health professionals in reducing harm. Public health experts have long warned about the ubiquity of online hate and its potential to damage well-being.
“This study should be a wake-up call,” Shmulewitz declared. “We can’t assume that what happens online stays online. For many, the emotional impact is deeply real – and deeply damaging.”